by Petra Salazar
Introduction
It is important that as educators we do not envision students as blank slates or as passive recipients of our instruction. Similarly, teachers should not be envisioned as interchangeable content-delivery vehicles in the classroom. Teachers come to their posts with complex inner lives and a broad range of experiences that impact their work. In this essay, I argue that teachers should engage in practices that help them become aware of their own identities and the assumptions they make that affect their teaching—assumptions about themselves, about their students, about the purpose and possibilities of education, and about the nature of the particular educational system they work in. Doing this work enables teachers to challenge and transform those assumptions when they are negatively impacting student outcome. Additionally, such practices are an important way for teachers to feel empowered to resist the structural pressures that make them feel reduced to interchangeable content-delivery vehicles.
An adequate conceptualization of teacher identity should account for not only the professional aspects of identity, but also the biological, racial, social, political, cultural, and emotional aspects of identity as well. Conscious identity construction is critical work because "Teachers' identities are powerful factors in students' identity construction" (Hoffman-Kipp, 2008, p. 153). In this paper, I will examine what teacher identity is, and I will discuss several strategies for making teacher identity deconstruction and reconstruction an explicit and well-considered process.
Background on Teacher Identity
Over the last two centuries the topic of identity has gained increasing attention, with debate centering on conceptualizations of identity as fixed or fluid (Webb, 2005, p. 208). In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, “Modernist views of identity in the West privileged the idea of an unchanging, core self, learning to adapt to social roles” (Webb, 2005, p. 208). By the late 20th century, however, postmodernists such as Michel Foucault and Judith Butler introduced the language of self-formation and social construction (Clarke, 2008). Academic discourse around identity exploded during this time and has continued steadily into the 21st century (Clarke, 2008, p. 185). Rather than providing tidy answers to the questions surrounding it, identity has unveiled itself as an amorphous conceptual creature that is continually evading capture by the research community.
Many theorists have attempted to define teacher identity in terms of skills and practices, but “methodological reductionism” (Palmer, 1998, p. 10) fails to honor the complexity of identity. Fortunately, more fluid language began to emerge that attempted to take into account the dynamic and subjective aspects of “our teaching selves” (Clarke, 2008, p. 194). For Parker Palmer, teacher identity refers to an “evolving nexus where forces that constitute” a life converge (1998, p. 10). Peter Hoffman-Kipp describes this nexus of teacher identity "as the intersection of personal, pedagogical, and political participation and reflection within a larger sociopolitical context" (2008, p. 153). Jackie Walkington emphasizes the evolving nature of teacher identity, arguing that "Teacher identity is based on the core beliefs one has about teaching and being a teacher; beliefs that are continuously formed and reformed through experience" (2005, p. 54). Matthew Clarke compares this evolution to a dialogue, suggesting that we should think of teacher identity “in terms of teachers ‘arguing for themselves’, or giving an account of themselves" (2008, p. 185) and seeking to be “recognized as a teacher by students" (2008, p. 192). Likewise, Deborah Britzman suggests that teaching “is always in the process of becoming: a time of formation and transformation, of scrutiny into what one is doing, and who one can become” (1991, p. 8). As these definitions illustrate, an adequate account of teacher identity must recognize its complex and changing nature.
The research of the past twenty years on teacher identity specifically includes topics of “teachers’ personal and professional lives, studies of the formation of teachers’ emotions, and studies of teachers’ praxis” (Clarke, 2008, p. 185). Many researchers also started to emphasize “the need for pre-service teachers to develop reflective strategies in order to negotiate” the complexities of the classroom (Webb, 2005, p. 207). These strategies are meant to raise “identity consciousness” (Hoffman-Kipp, 2008, p. 154) and are an integral part of “reflective practice” (Webb, 2005) (Walkington, 2005) or “identity work” (Clarke, 2008) (Hoffman-Kipp, 2008). Identity work refers to “self-examination at multiple levels—not just looking inside oneself, through the lens of one’s socialized conscience, but knowing how one is constituted as a subject, subjectivated by different economies of power, the processes and practices that constitute one’s self as an enculturated self” (Wain, 2007, p. 166). I will discuss identity work and reflective practice in detail below.
Teacher Identity in Today's Education Debate
Teacher identity is an increasingly complex and important matter as policymakers attempt to "further define and regulate expected behaviours for future teachers" (Webb, 2005, p. 207). Education reform is disfiguring the role of the teacher into that of a testing coach and test proctor. The question of how teachers can maintain personal authenticity, agency, and integrity in this climate is urgent to address. Despite the urgency, however, the complexity of teacher identity is not a prominent topic in current discussions about education.
Under No Child Left Behind teachers must be “highly qualified” (Spring, 2012, p. 237) and in order to be identified as highly qualified, teachers must meet a set of criteria related to skills and strategies. This criteria, along with high-stakes testing, limits the teacher’s sense of empowerment in the classroom and buys into the delusion that a “highly qualified” teacher identity can be reduced to skills and strategies. This new reality is particularly alarming because often in order to meet these standards teachers are required to make compromises in teaching that “not only shatter ideals but also cheat students of opportunities to learn” (Spring, 2012, p. 245). This shattered self is particularly distressing when we consider Parker Palmer’s insistence that teachers must feel undivided in one’s role as a teacher in order for good teaching to take place. He claims that “the divided self will always distance itself from others, and may even try to destroy them, to defend its fragile identity” (1998, p. 15).
This sense of powerlessness was illustrated in a recent interview I conducted with a seventh-year Humanities teacher. Mr. Montoya expressed frustration with the “lost academic time” and the “stop-and-start effect” of the testing schedule (Salazar, 2015, p. 4). Ultimately, these constraining working conditions, along with a burdensome teacher workload, cause Mr. Montoya to feel that teaching is not a sustainable career for himself, or for teachers in the U.S. generally (Salazar, 2015, p. 10). Palmer believes that, despite the climate in education, it is possible to form a resilient and undivided or whole teaching identity. According to Palmer, teachers “are not victims of external forces but persons possessed of an inner power that cannot be taken from us, though we can and do give it away” (1998, p. 20). For Palmer, it is through identity work and reflective practice that we reclaim a sense of agency and wholeness.
While Mr. Montoya did not necessarily convey a teaching identity that could withstand the pressures of high-stakes testing and the compromises they require, he did express a strong connection to his role as a teacher. It was clear from our conversations that Mr. Montoya held a positive teacher identity with strong and considered approaches to the classroom. After confiding that he did not intend to remain in teaching, he spoke fondly and with much gratitude of the gifts teaching has given him. Among them was the gift of having “learned a lot about himself through his role as a teacher” (Salazar, 2015, p. 10). Mr. Montoya gained this awareness through a clear process of self-construction. He “works tirelessly to question his own thinking and challenges himself daily to check his own assumptions to ensure that he is fairly approaching issues pertaining to his students” (Salazar, 2015, p. 6). What Mr. Montoya is engaging in is the crux of identity work, but he is going through the process of self-formation in an isolated and unstructured manner. I would argue that with the support of a structured group made up of teachers who are equally committed to identity work that Mr. Montoya would be in a stronger position to construct a resilient and adaptive teacher identity that is prepared for a long career in the profession.
The Impact of Identity on Teachers and Teaching
Identity work and reflective practice. According to Peter Hoffman-Kipp, it is "necessary to develop informed and committed teaching identities that acknowledge educational politics and difference, affirm diversity, and work toward honest dialogue" (2008, p. 153). To do this teachers must engage in identity work and reflective practice through “journals, portfolios and online discussions” (Webb, 2005, p. 207). Marian Webb argues that reflective practice should also be conducted through reflective teacher support groups that are noncompetitive and non-assessable in nature (2005, p. 221) and that help teachers to continually revisit the questions of ‘Who am I?’ and “Who am I becoming?’ (2005, p. 209). Additionally, Jackie Walkington argues that mentoring by supervising teachers provides a great opportunity for reflective practice (2005, p. 63). She clarifies:
The traditional practice of pre-service teacher supervision, where the focus has been on socialization into a setting and the assessment of performance, is limiting to the future teacher’s growth as a professional. Without the opportunity to challenge personal philosophies and existing practices, pre-service teachers merely perpetuate the behaviour and beliefs of supervising teachers. The potential result is a teacher who knows how to ‘fit in’ to existing contexts, but lacks the skills and confidence to make decisions that will make a difference (2005, p. 63).
Both Webb and Walkington are advocating for practices that involves ‘collegiality’, which relies on collaboration rather than competition and assessment. It is only within the safe confines of these mentoring relationship spaces that teachers can fruitfully explore their own unconscious attitudes.
Writing a few years later on the subject, Hoffman-Kipp and Clarke seems to agree with this need for collaboration and mentorship. Hoffman-Kipp’s stance hinges on the work of Lev Vygotsky, the father of Social Development Theory. Hoffman-Kipp sees identity formation occurring in social contexts, which is why he believes teacher education classes offer significant opportunity to “further the identity construction process” (2008, p. 168). For pre-service teachers, he believes that in order to raise identity consciousness they should “(1) create texts about their beliefs and practices; (2) share those texts with others; (3) investigate theory as a tool for understanding those texts; and (4) do all of this with the support of a facilitator who has done their own identity work and gained some self understanding” (2008, p. 157).
Matthew Clarke examines the use of analytic lenses in identity work, but relies on the importance of interaction with others as a way to promote “transformational identity work” and “ethical agency” (2008, p. 195). He believes that "recognizing that our identities, like our pedagogical practices, should not be predetermined, but need to be continually renegotiated within specific contexts, leaves open the possibility that our pedagogical certainties might be transformed by encounters with others and by exploration of others’ ideas" (Clarke, p.194). Important to all of these reflective practices is that teachers be honest “about their own preconceptions, stereotypes, or negative feelings" (Hoffman-Kipp, 2008, p. 159).
Additionally, Clarke uses a Foucauldian model of identity, which comprises of four aspects, to illustrate the ways teacher identity impacts the classroom. These four “elements that combine to produce the identity” (Clarke, 2008, p. 190) are (1) The substance of teacher identity, which refers to how a teacher conceptualizes the self, for instance, as part of mind or emotion; (2) The authority-sources of teacher identity, which refers to the “sources of discursive authority” recognized by a teacher; (3) The self-practices of teacher identity, which refers to the techniques and practices a teacher will use to “fashion and shape” a teaching self; and 4) the telos of teacher identity, which refers to a teacher’s goal or purpose of teaching (Clarke, 2008, p. 191). Clarke illustrates the practical application of this model by analyzing how the four aspects of one teacher’s identity demonstrate a very clear ideology that schooling is to “endorse and reproduce accepted social values” (2008, p. 194). So through his model, Clarke was able to identify a default conservative ideology that was informing the teacher’s classroom approach.
For Clarke, identity work is an ethical and political practice that helps teachers create a democratic classroom by drawing teacher awareness to their own implicit beliefs and attitudes. Teachers who have not done identity work may sincerely want to create democratic classrooms, but nonetheless find themselves doing things that contradict their own values, and they may then experience inner conflict, frustration, and bewilderment. Identity work would help them see how their ideology is shaping their choices and reactions, and it would provide them an opportunity to challenge and transform that ideology to better reflect their commitment to creating a democratic classroom.
While identity work and reflective practice are undeniably needed in professional development, the work they would be doing is more closely tied to concepts of personal development. Identity work will help teachers not only shape their teaching selves, but will also help them deconstruct and reconstruct long-held identities and challenge personal ideologies that have the potential to negatively impact student outcome. It is very intimate work that requires a trusting collegial environment where teachers can explore implicit psychological material. As “socially oriented professionals whose work shapes the identities of our students…we all have an ethical obligation to reflect on our identities and engage to some degree in ‘identity work’" (Clarke, 2008, p. 187). We must, therefore, have the courage to behave ethically in regards to our classroom approach, and that requires “outwardly challenging” the ideas that we “hold dear” (Walkington, 2005, p. 59).
Complementary pedagogical approaches. Teachers who engage in identity work and reflective practice are in an ideal position to engage in pedagogical approaches that promote pluralism and dialogue in the classroom. One such approach is democratic education, which encourages civic knowledge and political engagement. Diana Hess argues that a key ingredient to this approach is controversy and advocates for “loading the civic education curriculum with hotly debated political issues in order to teach young people that controversy is not an unfortunate byproduct of democracy, but one of its core and vital elements" (2004, p. 257). Hess believes controversy provides students a critical opportunity “to reason out loud about disagreements that arise in democratic politics" (2004, p. 257). However, this approach brings up important questions about teacher disclosure—questions that are themselves controversial.
Many teachers shy away from taking a stand on an issue in the classroom so as to avoid privileging one side of an argument or to avoid indoctrinating students with their own ideas. While teachers may try to teach in a "pedagogically neutral fashion" (Hess, 2005, p 48), it is impossible to maintain neutrality because “schools are not neutral sites, and teachers cannot assume the posture of being neutral either” (Giroux, 2004, p. 211). Hess believes teachers have an "Obligation to model the importance of taking a stand on issues" (Hess, 2005, p 47). Furthermore, voicing an opinion on a controversial issue provides "an opportunity to demonstrate to…students how adults think through political issues" (Hess, 2005, p 47). An alternate strategy is to “privilege a particular perspective by creating an ideological curriculum that was unbalanced” (Hess, 2005, p 48) and to frame discussions not as controversy, but as fact so that the teacher’s bias is buried rather than explicit. I believe that making honest, but responsible disclosures allows teachers to explicitly consider their opinions and makes their agendas more transparent and identifiable, which in turn allows students to relate to teachers not as authorities, but as people with their own considered opinions. Responsible disclosures cannot happen, however, without the foundation of identity work and reflective practice, which help teachers to recognize the sources of their beliefs as well as challenge beliefs that are harmful to student identities.
It is important for teachers to remember that while they are developing their teacher identities and considering issues of disclosure, they must “comply with any school policies regarding controversial materials and profane speech" (Spring, 2012, p. 265). Freedom of speech in the classroom is only protected if teacher “comments are related to the curriculum...comments are appropriate for the age of the students and would be considered appropriate by other educational professionals" (Spring, 2012, p. 265). In order for resilient teaching identities to emerge from reflective practices, they must be adaptive to policy constraints.
Identity work also lays the groundwork for “multiculturalism,” an important pedagogical approach that advocates for cultural competency. The dimensions of multicultural education are (1) content integration, which involves content that depicts a variety of cultures and groups; (2) the knowledge-construction process, which refers to the ways teachers help students understand the implicit assumptions in content; (3) prejudice reduction, which helps students develop more positive racial attitudes; (4) an equity pedagogy, which requires the teacher to make necessary accommodations for diverse students; and (5) an empowering school culture and social structure, which involves creating a safer school environment for diversity (Banks, 1993, p. 5). Identity work and reflective practice are requisite for the kind of cultural responsiveness required of this pedagogical approach.
Implicit Association. Teachers cannot engage in meaningful identity work without challenging their own assumptions. A safe classroom is one where the teacher is aware and vigilant of the threat of stereotypes and prejudices. It is only in this context that diverse voices feel empowered to emerge. Research on implicit association has exploded over the past decade. This body of research attempts to draw awareness to the kinds of unconscious psychological material that may be affecting how people treat one another. In one study Linda van den Bergh and fellow researchers examine teacher bias with respect to ethnic minority students. To measure implicit bias, Van den Bergh relied on the widely regarded Implicit Association Test developed by Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz (1998) (2010, p. 503). The IAT “assesses the association between various concepts by asking participants to repeatedly pair two concepts (e.g., Black and good, White and good)” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 503).
Van den Bergh’s study concluded that “An implicit measure of the prejudiced attitudes of teachers proved to be a stronger predictor of both teacher expectations and student achievement than an explicit measure of prejudiced attitudes” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 519). Implicit measures are more useful than explicit, self-reported data because while teachers often “espouse values of democracy and empowerment, residual control ideologies present in multiple and overlapping activity systems surrounding teachers make it difficult to enact these values" (Hoffman-Kipp, 2008, p. 153). This unconscious material has detrimental impacts on student achievement. Raising awareness to this implicit material opens up the possibility for challenging attitudes and modifying classroom approaches.
Using the IAT, Van den Bergh’s study was able to prove that “The differential expectations of the teachers and the differing sizes of the ethnic achievement gap were...related to the implicit prejudiced attitudes of the teachers” (2010, p. 518). Teachers convey their expectations to students using “subtle, mostly nonverbal, and usually unintentional” communications that students may clearly perceive and internalize, altering “their classroom behavior and motivation as a result, and thereby achieve in keeping with the expectations” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 520). Teachers with negative prejudiced attitudes are predisposed “to evaluate their ethnic minority students as being less intelligent and having less promising prospects for their school careers” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 518). Conversely, teachers can communicate high expectations by creating “a warmer socioemotional climate for students for whom they have high expectations” and giving “such students increasingly more difficult and challenging learning materials. Teachers also may provide those students for whom they have high expectations with more opportunities to respond and more informative feedback” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 520). This is a clear illustration of implicit bias operating in the classroom—with teachers unconsciously promoting the achievement of some students over others based on race, religion, gender, etc.
Given the findings of this study, it imperative that teachers engage in identity work and reflective practice. The Implicit Association Test can assist in this by providing “a quick and easy means for teachers to examine their own prejudiced attitudes, which they may not always be aware of. Self-awareness of prejudiced attitudes can then provide insight into the possibly differential treatment of the individual members of stigmatized student groups” (Van den Bergh et al, 2010, p. 523). The IAT is available online for free on the Harvard University website. It can measure a broad range of associations between concepts such as race, religion, age, and disability (Project Implicit, accessed 2015).
To help get a sense of strategies that could assist teachers in the classroom with the task of confronting their own unconscious stereotypes and prejudices, I conducted a short interview with Lori Gallegos de Castillo, a philosopher who studies implicit bias at Stony Brook University. While Ms. Gallegos acknowledged that not a lot of work has been done on the subject of implicit bias and teacher strategies, she did emphasize the importance of awareness of implicit bias in her personal teaching approach. She states:
In my own teaching, I have thought about implicit bias in the classroom in terms of the ways that bias is likely to manifest: how frequently girls and students of color are called on to participate; how students' participation is taken up and acknowledged; managing the dynamics of discussions (who is talking most, who is getting interrupted, who is getting credit for ideas, etc.); how students are disciplined; whether the content being taught is biased (e.g. whose narrative is being told, who are the 'experts' being studied, which histories are being considered legitimate?); and whether the particular activities and skills being developed might, themselves, be generating an advantage to certain groups of students. With these questions in mind, I just try to be attentive at every stage to my own behavior and attitudes (personal correspondence).
Raising one’s awareness to situations where implicit bias is likely to manifest is key for being able to approach behaviors related to that bias.
In addition to these strategies, which are intended to increase teacher awareness, teachers can also use a “blind grading” strategy, which requires reading exams and papers without names. Illustrating the effects of this strategy, Soraya Chemaly reported that “girls often score higher than boys on name-blind math tests, but once presented with recognizable boy and girl names on the same tests, teachers award higher scores to boys” (Time, 2015). According to The Daily Princetonian (2014), blind grading is an ethical practice because “In the rush to grade papers quickly, the reputation of the student, the quality of past work or biases about minority groups can act subconsciously to impact grades.” Grading is just one aspect of a teacher’s work impacted by implicit bias. Teachers must learn the situations where implicit bias is likely to occur and work to recognize and challenge their own prejudices.
Five additional strategies were developed to combat implicit bias by Patricia Devine and fellow researchers, which I believe teachers could readily adopt. These strategies are (1) Stereotype replacement, which involves replacing stereotypical responses to non-stereotypical responses; (2) Counter-stereotypic imagining, which involves providing images of counter-stereotypical others; (3) Individuating, which requires obtaining specific information about group members; (4) Perspective taking, which involves taking the perspective of a member of a stereotyped group; and (5) Increasing opportunity for positive contact, which involves seeking opportunities to encounter and engage in positive interactions with out-group members (Devine et al, 2012, p. 8). This developing research on implicit bias is intrinsically connected to identity work and reflective practice. Without an exploration of implicit psychological material, identity construction will be reactionary and impulsive rather than a well-considered process of self-formation.
Predictions about the Role Teacher Identity Will Play in the Next Decade
Over the next decade it is going to be increasingly important for teachers to consciously develop resilient teacher identities that are considered, collaborative, and adaptive. Political partisanship is growing rapidly, extremism is becoming more common, hostility towards immigrants and xenophobia flourish in conservative circles, and standardization and accountability are shaping education reform. It is in this extreme context that teachers must codify their identities and create safe classroom spaces for diverse perspectives to democratically coexist.
Marian Webb would argue that to assist in this, ‘reflection’ and ‘collegiality’ should be added to teacher-competency lists to promote “self-aware teaching behaviors and identity” (Webb, 2005, p. 209). She believes that in current models of expectations for teachers, “empathy, value of difference, and the ability to communicate effectively with a range of people are often assumed to be present, and subsumed by the need for technical skills due to time limitations” (2005, p. 209). Unfortunately, these assumptions are wrong and many students are subjected to classrooms led by teachers who have not engaged in the kind of intrapersonal identity work and reflective practice that is required by ethical teachers. While the self-awareness Webb promotes is critical, the outcome of a reflective self-formation practice should be an ethical teacher identity that honors diverse student identities.
Webb acknowledges that “learning to teach involves learning to work in complex situations with a variety of tensions...so the formation of teaching identities is highly individualised, with few processes that ‘fit all’” (2005, p. 221). Webb helps us to identify “three highly influential factors that have emerged as central to secondary teacher identity” (2005, p. 221). They are (1) initial subject discipline, (2) the need for ongoing learning (both pedagogy and content specific) that is broader than technical skills, and (3) opportunities for non-competitive reflection in a variety of styles with other pre-service teachers” (Webb, 2005, p. 221). Education policy makers should consider these factors when drafting new reforms so as to provide teachers the tools for fostering resilient teacher identities.
Conclusion
To summarize, teacher identity is a dynamic and influential factor in the classroom that must be considered explicitly in education policy and by teachers themselves. The goal of identity work and reflective practice is to "free thought from what it silently thinks, and so enable it to think differently” (Foucault, 1985, p. 9). If we as teachers are to challenge our students to engage in critical thinking in regards to their identities and their social context, then we must submit ourselves to the same challenge.
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